FNSBSD Alaska Native Education
(DRAFT)
INTRODUCTION TO ATHABASCANS
(DENE')
Origin of the Name Athabascan
The name "Athabascan" comes from the large lake located in the
Canadian providences of Alberta and Saskatchewan called "Lake
Athabasca." Lake Athabasca was given its name by the Cree Indians. In
Cree, Athabasca is a descriptive name for the lake which means "grass
here and there." The name was later extended to refer to those Indian
groups which lived west of the lake. It also refers to the large
language family by which all the languages of the of the Athabascan
Indians are a part of.
The Athabascan Language
The Athabascans of Alaska are members of one of the largest
indigenous linguistic groups in North America. Athabascans occupy a
vast region that stretches from western interior Alaska through
northern interior Canada eastward to the western shores of Hudson
Bay; as well as the plateau-prairie lands located in northern British
Columbia and the prairie providences. Two other major regions
inhabited by people who speak Athabascan are the Pacific Coast states
of Washington, Oregon, California, an area in Northern Mexico and
southwestern United States where Navajo and Apache languages are
spoken.
Historical and comparative linguists have classified the Native
people of these three regions in North America as Athabascans. All
people designated Athabascan, whether they inhabit the northern,
pacific or southwestern areas, speak variations of the same language.
Alaska Athabascan Languages
There are nine different groups of Athabascan languages in
Alaska. Within each group there are language differences as well as
the local bands which may have their own dialects. The nine
Athabascan groups by region are: Riverine-Ingalik, Koyukon, Tanana
and Holikachuk; Upland-Kutchin, Han and Upper Tanana; Pacific-Ahtna
and Tanaina. Look on the Alaska Native Language map to see where each
group is located.
Athabascans may have much the same culture, that is, the
same way of living and the same ideas about life, but each language group
may
not understand each other. Dialects in the past corresponded with a
social and geographical unit called a "regional band." These regional
bands are made up of 30 to 100 nuclear families. A nuclear family is
a self-contained family unit consisting of parents and their
children. Sometimes Athabascans lived together as extended family
units which were larger and consisting of parents, children and other
close relatives, such as grandparents or aunts and uncles, who would
live and work together.
Alaska Athabascan Social Groupings and Band Beliefs
Three major principles affected the social groupings of Alaskan
Athabascans.
The first principle was pragmatism. Group formation was dependent on
the number of people who would utilize resources available
efficiently. Different resources or activities required different
hunting and gathering techniques. Therefore one could belong to
several different social groupings in any one year. The largest
organization unit, the band, was composed of several local groups.
But throughout most of the year, life was lived in a family or local
group. These groups would work, travel and hunt together as a unit
and sometimes they would even come together with other families or
local groups for the purpose of having different kinds of
celebrations such as a gathering up ceremony or potlatch.
The second principle which determined social grouping was
kinship.
Local band members were generally related to each other in some
manner, either through their mother or father. Although kinship was
determined on both sides, each person belonged to the same "side",
"clan", or "sib" as their mother, and all other members of the same
sib were relatives of a very special nature. One couldn't marry a
member of the same sib. In additional, wars and gathering-ups
(potlatches) the responsibility of sibs.
The third principle governing social grouping was individual
choice. Each person was free to choose their local band affiliation
within certain bounds. This allowed a person to join a band as long
as they had relatives in the band. By allowing for flexibility and
movement in memberships changes could be made as needed because of
availability of game, personality conflicts or a person's own choice.
Each band utilized a well-defined territory, separate from those
belonging to others. Families, household and local groups had their
own sections of the Band territory. In some areas territorial rights
tended to be flexible, but in others, individual families claimed
ownership of certain fishing sites and trapping areas. This can even
be seen today by the fact that many Interior Athabascans return to
specific river sites, their fish camp, which may have been in the
family for many generations. Each regional band established their own
ways of life, beliefs and customs. Certain generalizations can be
made about the Athabascan way of life despite the differences between
bands. Common factors within their environments such as using every
available resource in their food quest were very similar throughout
the interior. Slight variations did occur where there were some
differences in the surrounding Athabascan environment.
The belief that each thing, animal, men, trees, rocks, etc. had a
yega or spirit was common to all Athabascans. The beliefs were
actually an extension of what hunters knew and continued to learn
about their environment. Athabascans believed that all creatures, and
even some inanimate objects, had spirits which were active powerful
parts of a creature. The spirits enabled an animal to know more than
what was more than immediately apparent to them. The spirit was very
protective. There were very definite rules that people had to respect
and follow in hunting and caring of the animals and other activities
they did based on the Athabascan beliefs in spirits. It was also
believed that if a human being did something that displeased a
spirit, the spirit itself would remain withdrawn from the people and
that the people might starve. For example, if a beaver was killed in
the proper way and his body was handled properly and the bones
disposed properly the beaver yega (spirit) would be satisfied. But,
if a man were to do something improper in his killing or handling of
the beaver, then the beaver yega would take revenge. The beaver yega
would see to it that the man caught no more beaver or had other kinds
of bad luck. Specific rules differed from area to area, but the
general concept was the same throughout.
Believing in animal spirits by the Athabascans was actually an
extension of what hunters knew about their changing environment.
Logic and past experience would help a hunter know where game should
be in a given area. If an animal was not there, then there was the
belief that the hunter or a member of their band had angered the
animal's spirit or broken a taboo. A ceremony was then held as an
attempt to gain favor with the animal's spirit.
Athabascan Cultures
Athabascan cultures are similar throughout Interior Alaska.
Although, there might be some variations dependent on specific
environmental conditions within a specific area. Singing and dancing
were very important to the Athabascan people. People often made up
songs about events, love songs, war songs, or about relatives who had
died, for the death potlatch. The children at potlatches and
community events observed the adults as a means to learn how to dance
and sing. Children learned to sing very early as it was very
important to the Athabascan way to carry on their teachings through
oral languages.
ATHABASCAN (DENE') WINTER
CAMP
The winter season begins after the first snowfall in October or
early November and lasts until the spring thaw sometime in April.
Activities around the winter camp changed with the weather. When it
is warm men would leave the camp to hunt, ice fish or secure supplies
from nearby caches. But when it is cold there would be little
activity beyond keeping warm and cooking.
Dwellings
Shelters used by Athabascans from late fall through the winter
months included brush lean-to dwellings, domed tents with a second
layer of skins with the hair left on for added warmth and sometime
houses that were dug partly under ground or semi-subterranean. The
type of houses the Athabascans used varied from region to region and
was much dependent on what was available and the climatic conditions
of the winter. Following contact with outsiders in later years, the
log house or cabin became a popular winter residence and is still
used much today.
Survival Activities
|
Winter Months
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Activities
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September
|
Moose rutting time
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October
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Slush Ice moves downstream
|
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November
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Ice freezes solid
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December
|
Little moon or short days
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January
|
Little longer days
|
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February
|
Eagle moon and little longer days
|
|
March
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Hawk moon or snow is getting soft
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April
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Crust on snow, ice melts then freezes
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Other months
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Activities
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May
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Leaves begin to come out
|
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June
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When animals have young
|
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July
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Moon of the king salmon
|
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August
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Leaves turn yellow
|
Gathering wood was a major wintertime activity throughout the snow
season. Families rarely gathered and piled more than two weeks of
wood at a time, so they were usually had to look gather wood even
during intense cold spells.
During early winter, the Athabascan people would fish through the
ice using spears, fish lures, bone hooks or traps and nets set under
the ice. October was always a busy time for making fish traps and
catching fish. This activity would continue in most regions until the
ice grew too thick. Later, women would trap around the camp. They
would trap marten, lynx and other animals for fur which was again
being dependent on the resources in the area they were living.
Smaller game such as grouse, ptarmigan, hares and squirrels were also
taken with a variety of deadfall traps and snares made by the elders,
women and children. Hares were not only important for their food
source, but also for their fur. The hare fur would be used for the
making of parkas or could be cut into thin strips and woven into
blankets.
Another major wintertime activity for hunters was looking
continuously for moose, caribou and sometimes sheep. When a kill was
made, families, traveling together would sometimes move to the fresh
meat supply. Bears were also hunted during late fall and into the
winter even after they had gone into their den to sleep. Everyone
participated in the food-gathering work. Even women and children
worked together in helping to gather food because it was necessary
for their survival.
During the winter, children helped with certain activities and
would learn by watching and listening to their elders. Elders, the
keepers of knowledge, were the educators of the young. Elders taught
children their genealogy knowledge. Elders contributed to the group
by making snowshoes, basketry or other materials needed by the
family. Elders also told stories to children as a means to teach as
well as to pass on the language and their rich cultural heritage. It
was most important that a child learned to take care of themselves.
This value of self-sufficiency seemed to permeate many experiences
recalled by adults. Childhood was not only listening and watching
other social interactions or play, but also filled with small tasks.
Children were sent to fetch wood, haul water, and later for watching
fish traps. A girl's task also included taking care of younger
children. Children were most likely to be disciplined by the mother
as fathers were often seen as indulgent and loving.
When food supplies ran low in camp, the young men were often sent
for fresh supplies from some of the caches stocked during the summer
and fall. Some would go to fish camp, some where sheep, caribou or
moose hunting had been good. Sometimes the Athabascan people would
camp near a cache that was not too high in the mountains.
Winter also meant the time for the making of garments, leggings
and boots. Boots were often made of skin from moose, reindeer or
caribou skins with the hair left on in the inside. Leaving the hair
on boots and their garments provided the Athabascans with added
warmth. For summer garments and boots the animal hair was usually
removed. Wolf skin was sometimes used to make the top of boots. Even
though it was winter, time was also spent making birch bark baskets.
Birch was cut and allowed to thaw before cutting the bark off. Spruce
root would have been gathered earlier in the year and saved. The root
was then soaked before it could be used to make baskets and other
containers needed for uses during the winter.
Mid-winter was also a time when the Athabascan people would
gather together for a celebration. This mid winter celebration was called
a "grub potlatch" by the Athabascans in the Salcha region. Other areas
had different names or reasons for gathering during mid winter. The
mid winter potlatch usually focused on feasting, dancing and game
playing. Dance and songs centered on such themes as happiness or the
antics of animals. These festivities would last about two weeks. Not
all band members would join the larger groups at this time and others
celebrated with other bands. Following this community activity the
bands would again disperse to their traditional areas to spend the
rest of the winter.
Later in the winter, during February and March, families would
sometimes travel to nearby lakes and areas where beavers could be
trapped. March was also a time where supplies and food could become
low. Starvation was not uncommon. Spruce bark and roots could be
scraped and used to ease the crisis of hunger.
As April came closer, families would begin to get ready for their
move to spring camp. It was also the time of the year when they would
trap muskrats. Muskrats were trapped for their furs and were also a
valuable food source. Trapping would continue until the snow melted
and there was lots of water. During ice break up everyone had to be
ever mindful of the possibilities of floods and the changing ways of
the rivers. Knowledge of the river, its flow, its patterns of
strengths and dangers, was very important to the survival of the
Athabascans in Alaska. When the time was right, the Athabascan family
would finally pack everything needed into their canoes and the
journey to spring camp would begin.
Introduction
ANE Curriculum
Overview
Unit Overview
Athabascan
Art Sampler
OCR SCANNED MATERIAL
Athabascan
Winter Studies